Haiku are poems about everyday experiences, and because of this and their brevity they are far more accessible than the majority of contemporary poems. A surprising number of people have at least heard of haiku, and most know they are short poems with 17 syllables, or perhaps even short Japanese poems with 3 lines of 5, 7 and 5 syllables - if the dictionary runs to such a detailed description! This is as far as it goes for most people, and indeed this understanding of a 'strict form' haiku is as good a starting place as any.

Haiku (pronounced 'hi-coo', with equal stress on the two syllables) originated in Japan and developed from renga - long poems of linked verse often written by groups of poets. Renga originated in the 12th century and were part of a literary tradition known as 'haikai'. As haikai used everyday language, often to comic effect, it grew in popularity amongst the masses, and by the beginning of the 18th century the renga's 'starting verse' or 'hokku' had become an independent poetic form. This was largely due to the influence of Matsuo Basho (1644-1694) who is known as the first great haiku poet. Basho also introduced an increased level of sensitivity and lightness (karumi) to haikai, whilst often retaining the elements of humour and surprise.

Hokku were essentially poems about nature. They had to contain a seasonal word (kigo) or reference and be about a definite experience - what is now known as a 'haiku moment'. As they grew in popularity they produced many movements and schools of thought in Japan, though it is generally accepted that the other three great historic masters were Yosa Buson (1716-1783), Kobayashi Issa (1763-1827) and Masaoka Shiki (1867-1902). It is only during the twentieth century that these short poems have become commonly known as haiku.
In the 1950's haiku began to become popular in the West, largely due to the efforts of translators such as R. H. Blyth and Harold G. Henderson, and the influence of the East, and especially Zen Buddhism, on the Beat writers such as Jack Kerouac and Gary Snyder. (It should perhaps be noted here that haiku are not always Zen poems, but that elements of Zen are evident in some haiku.)

Haiku are now widely established in the West, and while they have inevitably evolved they have also retained many of the essential qualities of their Japanese forerunners.

Japanese haiku were originally written in a single vertical column and the vast majority had a natural rhythmic structure of 5, 7 and 5 syllables. The arrangement of words into similar syllabic patterns is common throughout Japanese literature and these 'lines' flow as naturally as iambic metre in English. This helps to explain why Japanese haiku were easily memorised and grew in popularity. When Western haiku poets began writing English language haiku in the 1950's they used the three line 5-7-5 form, now known as the 'strict form'. Differences between the Japanese and English languages were generally not perceived, though over time haiku poets writing in English came to realise that these inherent differences called for a new approach to form, more appropriate to their own language, and began writing 'free form' haiku with less (and occasionally more) syllables and sometimes 1, 2 or 4 lines.

To understand this development one has to consider the phonetic and grammatical structures of the two languages.These are considerably unalike, the most important difference being - as far as haiku poets are concerned - that English syllables generally contain more information than their Japanese equivalents. The comparative inflexibility of English grammar also adds to the fact that strict adherence to 5-7-5 when writing in English can sometimes lead to an overload of imagery or unfortunate enjambment.

This is not to say that the 'traditional' English haiku is impractical - there are excellent contemporary English language haiku written in both free and strict form. However, most poets now writing haiku in English have a flexible style, varying their use of form (including 5-7-5) depending on what they feel appropriate to the moment. Others try to write to particular constraints, whether these be widely accepted - such as a stress pattern of 2/2/2 or 2/3/2 - or self-imposed. For example, some haiku poets write only one-line haiku, others only four-line. On the syllabic front it is generally agreed that around 11 English syllables are equivalent to 17 in Japanese, though this shortness can easily compromise any attempts at a rigid structure. It is also worth noting that a similar amount of information can be contained in greatly differing syllable counts - for example 'rose' (1) and 'chrysanthemum' (4). It is a measure of a poet's skill to fit words into any fixed structure without this being too apparent.

Many haiku poets consider that other aspects of form are more important than syllabic count. Japanese haiku are partly defined by their fragmentary nature, usually being composed of two parts of varying length. These two parts have distinct images which when juxtaposed create an emotional response from the reader. Many English language haiku are composed similarly, revolving around two images which often sharply contrast or complement each other. These two images are divided by a more or less natural caesura, usually at the end of the first or second line.

Opinions vary on other aspects of form, such as the use of punctuation and capitals, though it is generally accepted that haiku do not have titles. The important thing is to not become too concerned with the appearance of haiku - it is their nature, their essence, that is all-important.

Beyond the characteristics of brevity and juxtaposition other defining qualities of haiku include a seasonal nature reference, the 'haiku moment', a sense of presence and haiku spirit. Qualities common to other poetry, such as rhythm and melody, are also important.

Japanese haiku traditionally contain a seasonal word (kigo) or activity (kidai). This may be a direct reference to a month or season, or more commonly a natural phenomenon which is particular to a season - such as a species of bird or flower or a meteorological occurence. An often used Japanese example is the morning-glory which blooms in summer. The seasonal reference traditionally evokes not only the specified image but also other aspects of nature particular to the season.

Similarly, Japanese haiku poets use other specific words and images, such as a particular place name, to convey wider meanings. Many of these have developed over the centuries and conjure up a host of associations without further explanation being necessary. As there is an almost non-existent history of Western haiku there are not any traditional equivalents to these, but haiku poets writing in English also often use seasonal words and images to describe when and where the haiku moment is occuring, as well as what it is that is being experienced.

Any of these categories, when, where and what, may be conveyed by the seasonal reference. Using the previous example, the mention of morning-glory not only gives the subject matter (what) but also the season (when). Other haiku may have more specific references to a particular time of a season or even day e.g. sunset. The location of the haiku may also be vague or specific, or even left unexpressed.

It is not always necessary to include a seasonal word in English language haiku. This is partly due to the lack of tradition and also partly due to the fact that many contemporary writers predominantly live in urban or similarly 'unnatural' environments. But while some modern haiku are seen as being divorced from nature it is important to realise that haiku are not specifically nature poems - it is our own input, our own emotions that are vital, and whether our experiences involve a specific bird or flower, or the sun or rain, or even something far less 'natural', it is the human element that makes a haiku what it is and allows us to share in the transience, tranquillity, sadness or even sheer joie de vivre of a moment.

A 'haiku moment' may be described as a singular everyday occurence which is experienced with increased awareness and understanding. This sudden grasp of reality helps to explain why haiku are considered by some to be of philosophical or spiritual inspiration, especially in a Zen sense. Other poets see haiku simply as a form of poetry, to be treated as a recreational or creative medium, though it is important to remember that haiku are not poems evolved from thought or inventiveness, such as aphorisms, but are rather expressions of actual moments of experience and awareness. The poet's reaction to what he or she has experienced (either by sight, sound, smell, taste or touch) is presented objectively, and it is through this objectivity and open-endedness that haiku allow the reader to experience and realise these 'haiku moments' for themselves. As such, it is often what is left unsaid that is all-important.

As haiku are essentially poems of the senses, including feelings, they are always written in the present tense to convey the immediacy of the moment, even if they are written from composite experience or long after the experience occurs. The actual wording of the haiku may come immediately, but some haiku are actually the result of numerous rewrites.

It is perhaps the haiku poet's hardest task to combine his or her own feelings with the actual event, which in itself may be more or less insignificant, and communicate the combined significance of these two factors without being overtly obvious.

This suggestiveness or open-endedness, without any hint of didacticism or judgement, is fused with an honest objectivity to form 'haiku spirit'. The physical aspects of the experience are presented unembellished by excesses such as subjective adjectives and rhyme. And while some of our traditional poetic qualities such as alliteration and assonance can be skilfully employed by haiku writers, other 'tools' of Western poetry such as anthropomorphism, simile and metaphor are eschewed. This allows the reader to experience the feelings of the poet, or their own feelings when placed in the poet's situation, without any directive indication on the poet's part. A good haiku may resonate in the reader's mind long after the initial reading, and it is often only later, or on a fifth or sixth reading, that qualities beyond those initially understood become apparent.

Haiku poets convey the meaning of the haiku and their own emotions by using concrete images to create an atmosphere. By juxtaposing two or, occasionally, three images the poet can create a movement in the reader's mind which allows their feelings to grow. This juxtaposition can be far more suggestive than any simile or metaphor, however original or inventive, providing of course that the comparison between the images is not too obvious or distant. The images may interact in an unexpected way to create tension and movement, such as an unexpected twist in the ending, or they may complement each other so that the often subdued mood of the poem is reinforced.

In Japanese haiku juxtaposition is achieved by using a cutting word (kireji) which is usually a meaningless word which separates the two images. In English language haiku this cutting technique is implemented by the use of a caesura, which may appear naturally or be represented by punctuation or spacing.

While most haiku rely on cutting not all are presented in this manner. Some haiku are a single continual sentence, while another popular technique is to use a pivot line where the middle line creates different meanings when combined with the first and last. As with puns, which can be used with care, it is important that these double meanings are more or less equally effective.

Many haiku have a feeling of lightness (karumi) about them, not in the sense of light, humorous verse, though of course haiku can be humorous, but in the sense of an honest acceptance and realisation of life and of its various conditions. As such the brevity and lightness of haiku reflect the transience of moments and of feelings.

Like other poems haiku rely heavily on their musicality, or at least their rhythm and melody. Many haiku poets are probably unaware they are employing these qualities and are simply writing (and rewriting) until the haiku feels natural and any excess words have been stripped away. Every word - and just as importantly every pause and silence, whether these be internal or at the end of the poem - has a full part to play in both meaning and rhythm, and the position of stresses is often all-important to the sound of the poem, as well as in emphasising key words. Combined with its meaning it is this musicality that makes a haiku beautiful and paradoxically complete within its incompleteness - a single breath giving way to silence.

Indeed, if one sat down with a list of all the other haiku qualities and wrote a haiku adhering to these it could still sound completely forced and unnatural. Good haiku writing, and reading, comes both naturally and from experience and practice in a greatly varied mix of measures. But because haiku are about everyday experiences, and because they use everyday words to communicate the relevance of these moments, anyone could potentially be a haiku poet.

In the increasingly busy and fragmentary modern world haiku are ideal contemporary poems. They are short while being far more than just sound bites, and they offer calm in the midst of apparent chaos. It is partly due to this brevity and accessibility that haiku are quickly becoming a worldwide phenomenon, and yet it is also due to these qualities that they are sometimes regarded as being easy to write and have often been ignored by Western poets. But while haiku can be written by anyone, the best haiku have an intrinsic beauty, musicality and honesty which is incredibly difficult to achieve, and which allows us all to share in the immediacy and transience of life.

At the end of the day, haiku are far, far more than short poems with 17 syllables.

Senryu are identical in form to haiku but rely more on the poet's wit and observational skills than on the presentation of imagery. Their qualities differ somewhat from those of haiku - they rarely have a season word and are concerned with human nature, especially its absurdities, rather than the relationship between humans and other nature. And unlike the open-endedness of haiku most senryu have an abrupt or surprise ending.

Despite these differences haiku and senryu are not always easily distinguishable, and they are generally considered to be of equal interest and significance.

JOHN BARLOW Editor, Snapshots

Copyright © Snapshot Press 1998